Archive for the ‘Science Technology’ Category

SCIENTIFIC-TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION: A MEANS OF ENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY IN HUMAN SOCIETY

INTRODUCTION

Science and technology are important tools in mans attempts to exist, develop and take charge of his environment. Ever since the discovery of science and its application man has consistently made efforts to develop various technologies in order to conquer nature, recreate the world for his simplicity and benefits. Right from the primitive times, man invented bow and arrow, fire, hoes, knives, cutlass and so on, in order to deal with the existential problems nature possesses. Even in the present world, the efforts of man are in totality geared towards the provision of food, clothing and shelter and other basic amenities for his survival.

Essentially, man is able to maneuver his way around the cosmos and come up with scientific discoveries because of his natural endowments. Man is naturally endowed with intelligence. He has the mental and natural ability to forge ideas and the capacity to invent. The capacity to invent makes him a creator or an inventor. Thus, the application of science to everyday life manifests in the various inventions of man vis–vis the technological developments in human society. Science and technology, therefore, are artificial inventions of man basically put to use for his benefits.

MAN, HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY.

It is pertinent to mention that science does not exist outside the social cultural environment of man. Man is the creator of science and the inventor of technology. In fact, man could be regarded as the highest expression of his environment. The development of science and technology is usually aimed at finding solutions to certain existential problems or difficulties of nature within a particular sociocultural environment. Although the nature of science suggests an objective application to universal problems and conditions, which is a deductionist approach to science; we cannot, however, deny the fact that it is at first targeted at dealing with particularistic instances within a given environment.

Historically, man has played a key role in the development of science and technology. herve leger dress . The human society, no doubt, has gone through a series of evolutions, transformations and as well as revolutions at every stage of its development. In the early Greek period, for instance, philosophy, art and science attracted most wide spread attention. Science and art were part of philosophy. What existed however was speculative science. This was the period where Thales lived. He regarded as the first notable philosopher and scientist in the western world. He was the first person to predict an eclipse of the sun, which eventually took place in 585 B.C. His pupil, Anaximander, was the first evolutionist scientist in the western world. He held that all living things originated from the sea and began to develop in the course of time into various forms by means of adaptation to their environment. He held that man evolved from the animals. Anaximander also held that the earth was not flat but like a cylinder in shape and is known to have made the first map in history. Pythagoras the mathematician, Democritus the atomists and Aristotle the greatest scientist in Ancient Greece, all lived at this period.(Omoregbe 2002, 177)

Religion and theology took the centre stage and became the focus of interest in the middle ages. Ethics, literature and art characterized the renaissance age. However, at the emergence of Francis Bacon who laid the foundation for inductive model of science, the modern period witnessed the development of empirical and experimental science. This was the period where two notable doctrines emerged namely, the Rene Descartes led Rationalism and the John Locke led Empiricism. But in the contemporary period the centre of interest has progressively shifted to science and technology. (Fadaunsi 1997, 58).

It is fundamental to mention that the internal factors and as well as mans non complacency and his quest for knowledge in each of the periods in the history of society informed the shifts in the emphasis for development.

Technology is what we know as applied science. It is the systematic study of techniques for making and doing things (Gordon 1942, 20). In a like mind manner, D.P Lauda and R.D Ryan (1971: 53) see technology as:

Mans effort to cope with his physical environment both that provided by nature and t9hat created by mans own technological deeds, such as cities and his attempts to subdue or control that environment by means of his imagination and ingenuity in the use of available resources.

Technology is the application of the discoveries of science to improve the conditions of human life. It is this application that results in inventions to improve human welfare in various sectors of human life. Disciplines like Engineering, Medicine, Information Technology, Electronics, Architecture, etc. are applied sciences.(Omoregbe 2002, 179).

The history of technology extends as far as the ancestors of man. Technology grows and develops hand in hand with science. Both of them compliment each other. The development of various tools when man was at the primitive stage in the history of society is recorded to be the first technological revolution. By the time of the Neanderthal Man, a degree of specialization in tool making had been achieved. The CroMagnon homosapiens mastered some mechanical principles in pottery making and by the period of the Neolithic Man, man had fairly advanced in tool making crafts.(Ndubuisi 2002, 132).

By the 16th century, Francis Bacon advocated experimental science and suggested that scientists should study the methods of craftsmen. Technology continued to grow with development of iron bridges, steam engines and textile machinery. This period witnessed the complimentary roles of science with technology. For instance, Edison, the inventor of the first practical lighting used the scientific ideas of Faraday and Henry, who had earlier experimented on electricity. Bell, the inventor of the telephone also developed it on the scientific ideas of Helmholtz.(Ndubuisi 2002, 133).

ENHANCED PRODUCTIVITY

There is no gainsaying the fact that the revolution that takes place in science and technology in human society is by no mean feat. With the aid of technology, man has been able to put to use his ideas of almost a perfect, seamless society with the aid of various gadgets he develops for his benefits. The world today, particularly in this 21st century, experiences economic and political growths as a result of scientific and technological advancements. There are advancements and breakthroughs in the areas of power and energy, transportation, communication, medicine, architecture, agriculture, industry, military technology, computer, space shuttles, biotechnology etc.

That advancement in science and technology has contributed to the enhancement of productivity and increased economic growth in human society is an understatement. The fact is evident that science and technology has a large interaction to productions in all sphere of human society. The industrial revolution which occurred in Europe in the 18th century marked the beginning of an economic growth and revolution. This industrial revolution showed a massive social, economic, and technological change, which commenced with the introduction of steam power, fuelled primarily by coal. The technological and economic progresses recorded of the industrial revolution gained momentum with the introduction of steam powered ships, boats and railways. However, at the turn of the 19th century, the revolution spread throughout Western Europe and North America, and eventually impacting the rest of the world. (Wikipedia)

The events following the enhanced productivity of labour characterized by the industrial revolution which had spread across the world led to the second industrial revolution beginning around 1870. This second industrial revolution gradually grew to include the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution, electrical industries and the automotive industries.(Ndubuisi 2002, 151). In fact, the increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the usage of coal to the potential for industrialization.

It is therefore important to mention that these industrial revolutions, which led to the formation of various giant industrial corporations with often nearly, globalize international operations and interests, paved the way for the successive scientific technological revolution that emerged in the 1940s and 1950s. This scientific and technological revolution is thus evident in some countries, like the disintegrated Soviet Union and the United States of America, visit to the moon during this period. Today, other countries are following suite. In September 2008, China launched her space shuttle and sent a 3 man one week space delegation to the moon.

It can be seen from the foregoing that the indelible mark made by the revolutions in science and technology has influenced the way man, of the modern age, perceives the world. The scientific and technological revolution that has taken the world by storm today stemmed from the industrial revolution of the 18th century. Kolawole Ogundowole (2003: 134) notes that:

In the first half of the twentieth century especially during the 194s and 195s there were fundamental shifts in the structure of most sciences and in the scientific activity as a result of major scientific and technical discoveries. This in turn led to an increase interaction of science with technology and production. Precisely, it was during that decade that mankind entered the period of scientific and technological revolution.

Today, the scientific and technological revolution is enhancing productivity of labour. It is changing the entire face of social material production. It evidently has a positive change over the nature, conditions and contents of labour as well as the composition of productive forces, the social division of labour, and the sectional and occupational structure of society.

In his perception, Dryakhlov (1984: 55) defines scientific and technological revolution as:

The radical qualitative transformation and production forces completed as a result of the merger between the scientific and technological revolutions and the conversion of science into a direct productive force.

This implies that as one of the basic principles and laws of dialectics, there exists in human developmental processes, quantitative and qualitative changes. This affirms the materialist assertion that everything develops from the transformation of quantity into quality. Thus, scientific and technological revolution is a special phenomenon connected with the conversion of science into direct productive force of the society, the radical qualitative transformation of the structure of productive forces and the changes in the character and content of human labour. (Ogundowole 2003, 138).

With the evolution and development of science and technology, it has become evident that this revolution has increased production and consumption, particularly in the developed countries of the world, beyond all expectations of the past. It is thus possible that poverty, hunger, and even unemployment on a large scale would be a phase of history. This is why V.G Afanasiev (2003: 139) notes that:

Science is the generator of ideas: technology is their material, substantive embodiment; while production is the area where the functioning of technology occurs, where people use scientific and technological achievements to obtain their necessary material wealth.

At this juncture, it is pertinent to mention that the rate of development of science and technology and its startling achievements in almost every sphere of human life, particularly as it enhances productivity in human society, is not without its side effects. Karl Marx was one of those who pointed it the evil inherent in the industrialization process. Marx was not, however, against the development of technology. But Marx believed that the industrialization process was the evil in the dialectical progression of feudal economic modes, which led to the full development of capitalism. Marx admitted that the industrialization of the society occurred, but it only led to the polarization of society into two main classes. Marx did not deny this industrialization, but was annoyed at the exploitation that existed between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. According to Marx (1972: 183):

Industrialization engenders the polarization of societies into two classes, the bourgeois those who own the means of production, i.e. the factories and the land, and the much larger proletarian working class who actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production.

As a direct effect of the scientific technological revolution, Marx opined that rapid advancements in technology left many skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. Again, Marx pointed out that there were flights of millions of unemployed people from rural areas or small towns to the large cities as a result of the search for white collars jobs. Thus, there was the development of large urban population centers, which actually led to unprecedented conditions of poverty in the slums that housed workers for the new factories. At the same time, the bourgeoisie class, at only a small fraction compared to the proletariats size became exceedingly wealthy.

As a solution to this situation of unequal distribution of wealth and sheer exploitation of the capitalist system, Marx asserted that the dialectical progression, itself, is a necessary precursor to the development of socialism and eventually communism. Marx (1972: 209) believed that:

The industrial proletariat will eventually develop class consciousness and revolt against the bourgeoisie, leading to a more egalitarian socialist and eventually communist state where the workers themselves own the means of industrial production.

Marx may not be right with his belief that capitalism, which developed as a result of the industrialized technological advancements, would collapse and give way to socialism and eventual communism. The reality in our world today shows that capitalism, as against socialism, strives and technology is advancing. But events in recent time show that advancement in technology has not solved most of the existential problems in our world. Advancements in food/agricultural technology, for instance, have not halted the shortage of food. Taken that famine is prevalent in most developing countries, citizens of the technological advanced countries are also crying fowl with the high cost of food items in their society. In fact the United Nations Organizations, early in the year 2008, announced that the entire world was going through a huge food crisis.

In the same vein, advancements and revolution in science and technology did not stop the economic recession that occurred in the United States of America in 2008. Despite its enhancements of productivity, scientific and technological revolution did not stop this economic recession in the U.S which led to the loss of over 800 thousand jobs between January and September, 2008. The 700 billion dollars economic bail out plan sent by the erstwhile U.S president Bush and approved by the legislature in October 2008 remains to be seen in helping the economic turn around of the country. Even the stimulus plan by the current US president Obama has not made significant contribution to the US economy.

Similarly, the revolution in science and technology has not stopped the death of a number of little children in China over the melamine contamination of the baby milk and other diary products. Hence, despite its potentials in enhancing productivity, its effects on labour, human life, job loss, could sometime be devastating.

CONCLUSION

We cannot deny the good that the advancements in science and technology have done to man in virtually every aspect of his life. We cannot also rule out the fact that man is the instrument of change in the scientific technological revolution. In order words, science and technological developments cannot be made possible without man being at the centre of its creation and inventions. This makes B.M Kedrov and S. Shukhardin (2003: 139) consider that scientific and technological revolution is an integral phenomenon encompassing the whole manscienceproduction system.

We must however emphasize that science and technology is like a doubleedge sword. It has both positive and negative sides. While its success has tremendously improved the quality of human life, its negative side is highly devastating to human life.

Man faces serious danger of the destructive side of technology in the areas of air pollution, pollution of seas and rivers, the depletion of the ozone layer, toxic waste, etc. The destructive effects of technology on mankind could also be seen in the areas of the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction, in particular the manufacture of chemical weapons, atomic bombs, biological and nuclear weapons.(Omoregbe 2002, 181).

The history of modern world has shown that powerful countries that have developed these weapons of mass destruction are usually tempted to use it on weaker countries. The atomic weapon of mass destruction used by the United States of America, during the Second World War, over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan is still fresh in our memory. This is why presumably most other countries, like Iran, Korean, India etc., are developing nuclear weapons for themselves in order to protect themselves and wade off the threat of attack.

There are various other threats that the advancements and revolution in science and technology pose to mankind, but these destructive elements of science and technology are not enough excuses to deny the obvious that almost everybody anywhere in the world has benefited positively from it. It has improved mans condition of life by making the necessities of life, like food; shelter; clothing; transportation; communication; health; etc., more easily available.

It is therefore our position that the positive elements that can be derived from the science and technology are of great importance to man. Man must therefore ensure that science and technology must be to his service and oriented towards human affairs. Man must avoid the wrong usage of technology as this may lead to his self destruction. The wrong usage of science and technology poses more serious threats to world peace which man has been trying to attain since the beginning of the world.

REFERENCES

Afanasiev V,G, quoted from Kolawole Ogundowole (2003), Nature of Man:

History and Philosophy of Science in 10 Modules, Lagos,

Correct Counsels Limited.

Dryakhlov N.,(1984), The Scientific and Technological Revolution: Its Role in

Todays World, Moscow, Progress Publishers.

Fadaunsi Ayo, (1997), Science and Technology as Promises and Threats to

Societies in The Nigerian Journal of Philosophy,

Department of Philosophy, University of Lagos.

Gordon G., (1942), What Happened in History, London, Oxford University Press.

Kedrov B.M and Shukhardin S. quoted from Kolawole Ogundowole (2003),

Nature of Man: History and Philosophy of Science in 10

Modules, Lagos, Correct Counsels Limited.

Lauda, D.P and Ryan, R.D, (1971), Advancing Technology, Iowa, W.M.C. Brown

Company Pub,ishers.

Marx Karl, (1972), Economic, Class and Social Revolution, London, Nelson

Publishers.

Ndubuisi Friday,(2002), The Rise and Development of the Various Areas of

Technology in Kolawole Ogundowole (ed), Man, History

and Philosophy of Science: A Compendium of Readings,

Lagos, Obaroh and Ogbinaka Publihers Limited.

Omoregbe Joseph, (2002), Science and Technology in the Service of Man in

Kolawole Ogundowole (ed), Man, Historyn and

Philosophy of Science: A Compendium of Readings,

Lagos, Obaroh and Ogbinaka Publihers Limited.

Wikipedia, Industrial Revolution, http.www.thefreeencyclopedia.htp

10 Things you Didn?t Know About North West Science and Technology

North West Science and Technology has led to many cutting edge scientific breakthroughs, such as Britain’s first aeroplane, the birth of the first test tube baby, splitting the atom, and the world’s first computer. Science and Technology is continuing to develop rapidly in this region, and many global brands, ranging from medical research to military aircraft have significant research and design facilities in the North West. Over 25% of the region’s £106 billion economy comes from Science and Technology companies.

1. North West universities play a key role in Science and Technology, and have a combined turnover of over £1.2 billion, almost 1% of the region’s total economy. Leading companies, including those in the Aerospace Business, automotive supply and manufacturing companies, nuclear energy and medical research are closely linked to North West universities. More than 50,000 North West students graduate every year, including 25,000 with life science degrees. Over 69,000 science students are trained every year.

2. The Aerospace Business in the North West has a turnover of £6 billion, and is responsible for producing military and commercial aircraft and components which are used both in the UK and exported worldwide. Extensive R&D programmes ensure that the latest technologies are available to create the most advanced planes in the world. Countries all over the world rely on the North West Aerospace Business for their military and commercial aircraft requirements

3. The Chemistry Industry plays a vital role in the North West, and sales of chemicals contribute over £10 billion to the economy, equating to approximately 20% of the UK chemistry industry. Approximately 220,000 people are employed in this sector. In 2005, the Department of Trade and Industry announced that as part of the Technology Programme, one of the 19 new Knowledge Transfer Networks (KTNs) would be in Chemistry in the North West. KTNs help to share knowledge and research between businesses, academic institutions such as universities, and trade associations.

4. The North West and Cumbria in particular, is widely acknowledged as the centre of the UK Nuclear Energy industry, and is home to the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority. The research and development work done in this region has led the Government to conclude that utilising nuclear energy is part of a viable solution to meeting the energy needs of the UK.

5. There are over 50 research institutes, many of them multi-institutional, as well as traditional R&D departments. The North West is home to the Research and Development departments of several of the worlds leading companies, and business R&D investment in this region is greater than in any other part of the world except Asia. Recent reports show that 4 of the top 10 companies by R&D spending have significant facilities in the North West. Pharmaceutical development, including the largest cancer drug research centre in the UK, Aerospace Businesses, manufacturers of consumer products, as well as the Chemistry Industry and Nuclear Energy are well represented in the North West.

6. The North West’s seven science parks are home to many knowledge-based companies in diverse industries ranging from providing education to Nuclear Energy and decommissioning. Strong links to universities as well as research institutes and centres of knowledge, in the UK and abroad, help to ensure that Science and Technology in the North West is second to none.

7. Dedicated Strategic Science and Technology sites have been set up throughout the North West, and Manchester is aiming to become one of the UK’s first six Science Cities by 2015.

Manchester Science Park is internationally recognised as a centre of excellence, and is one of the most successful of its kind. Tenants include specialists in healthcare, telecoms, and digital media.

The Daresbury Science and Innovation Campus, near Warrington in Cheshire, is home to leading companies in diverse industries ranging from healthcare research to business support services. The nearby Daresbury Laboratory is one of the best-resourced science facilities in the UK.

Liverpool Science Park, right in the centre of Liverpool, is the fastest growing science park in the UK, and contains computer games, website design and software companies as well as solicitors specialising in intellectual property and technology law. Speke, also in Liverpool, is home to the National Biomanufacturing Centre, which is set to become the leading biopaharmaceutical design centre in Europe, and helps to create and develop new medicines

West Cumbria Science Park, near Whitehaven, has over 60 companies on site, ranging from ecology to engineering, many of which are involved in the Nuclear Energy Industry.

A Science Park in Lancaster is scheduled for development this year, and will be located close to the top-ten ranked university. This exciting new project will combine the renowned academic knowledge and resources of the University with local businesses know-how and the Lancaster Environment Centre.

8. With Manchester recently voted the most creative city in the UK, and Liverpool’s reputation as one of the leading cities for computer game design, the North West is at the forefront of new technologies as well as traditional Science and Technology. The use of ICT in education, website design and internet technologies, TV and film production, as well as other media industries, is all flourishing in the region, thanks to Science and Technology.

9. As well as looking to the future, the region’s scientific history is preserved through museums such as the World Museum in Liverpool, Quarry Bank Mill in Styal, Cheshire, and Wigan Pier. Visual displays as well as hands-on activities, demonstrations and different media show how Science and Technology has changed our lives, from mechanising everyday tasks to revolutionising manufacturing methods.

10. As well as the outstanding Science and Technology facilities, the North West is a popular business location thanks to its fantastic infrastructure. Within reach of 3 international airports, and a great motorway system, the North West is closer than you may think. In addition, the North West has many Areas of Natural Outstanding Beauty and the standard of living is high.

There has never been a better time to see how North West Science and Technology can help you.